Iran-Contra affair Essay Example for Free

Iran-Contra affair Essay The United States became a child of the enlightenment with the birth of its diplomacy in the modern world with an exceptionalist self perception. Its diplomacy was reinforced with a moral force owing to its messianic tendencies during its initial visions. The goals of the nation were unambiguously articulated in the early works of the States and the Republic. These writings formed the foundation of United States identity, making it stands out among the other nations of the world. By the principles upon which the nation was founded, high levels of integrity were to be observed among its citizens and officials. As such, transparency and accountability were meant to be the guiding principles of all public office holders. The role of the leaders was to act in the interest of the subjects and the interest of the nation. According to Ryan, the fundamental to democratic theory is the idea that the legitimacy of a government is founded on the consent of the governed. Practically, this was not extended to all the governed, but to the citizens, to those who had stakes in society. Even then, issues concerning policy must be agreed upon by the citizens through their representatives. The strength of the basic principles upon which the United States were founded has been tested ever since the birth of the nation. There have been significant constructions that have remained potent forces throughout the United States policy making in the twentieth century. The development of collective memories and ideological assumptions that form the reference points in United States diplomacy is among these forces. Again, the basis of a sphere of influence approach to policy making and the way in which the various universal ambitions are influenced by practical necessity or the incapability to further the sphere unchallenged also remained a potent force in United States policy making. It therefore comes as a surprise that the very principles that form the basis of the American strength are blatantly abused by the very individuals and officials meant to protect them. The Iran-Contra Affair is an example of this gross violation of the American principles. Background The relationship between the United States and Iran has not been good since the 1979 Iranian Revolution. As such, the relations have been anything but poor. It therefore comes as a surprise if claims begin to circulate to the effect that the two countries are having some form of arms deal. A Lebanese weekly, on November 3, 1986, reported that the United States had made a secret arms sale to Iran. Reports that followed suggested that the aim of the sales was to secure the release of American citizens that had been taken captive in Lebanon. The reports were difficult to believe as the Reagan administrations policy on arms sale especially to the Government of Khomeini of Iran was only rivaled by a few on strictness. Initially, the United States government denied the reports. However, the truth of the claims was revealed later in the month just as had been stated by the weekly. The United States had indeed sold weapons to Iran so as to secure the release of American hostages in Lebanon. As much as the weapons were sold to Iran, the number of American hostages in Lebanon remained the same. Three hostages were released and three more were taken captive during the period of the sales. The fact of the sale was proved even further when the Attorney General announced on November 25 that the proceeds from the Iran arms sale will be channeled to the Nicaraguan resistance. This happed at a time when the United States military aid to the Contras was prohibited. Iran and Nicaragua were thus brought together in a credibility crisis that posed serious questions about the adherence of Reagans administration to the constitutional process of the government. During the 1980s, Iran and Nicaragua had posed serious challenges to the United States foreign policy. The propriety and legality of the actions taken by the staff of the National Security Council and other government officers with regard to the sale of the arms and the secret assistance to the Contras raised deep concerns among the members of the Public and Congress. The United States assistance to the Contras was not a new issue as the Congress and the President had engaged in serious debate concerning the proper course of United States policy with Congress resolving to bar support of Contra military operation for almost two years. Senior government officials had also reiterated the administrations willingness to abide by the law. The United States foreign policy and the democratic rule of law came to be faced by such serious implications by the Iran-Contra Affair that the 100th Congress rooted to undertake its own investigation of the Affair. Origin The Iran-Contra Affair can be traced in two unrelated revolutions in Iran and Nicaragua. In 1979, the government of General Debayle in Nicaragua was overthrown and replaced by a government controlled by Sandinista leftists. During the same year in Iran, the pro-Western government of Pahlavi was overthrown by Islamic fundamentalists let by Ayatollah Khomeini. The Khomeini government allegedly became a supporter of terrorism against the citizens of United States. Following the revolution in Nicaragua, the United States policy towards the Sandinista government was such as to encourage it to keep its pledges of pluralism and democracy. However, this government became increasingly autocratic and anti-American. Nicaraguan government begun aiding a leftist insurgency in El Salvador, turned toward the communist countries of Cuba and Soviet Union for political, military and economic assistance. The United States, by December 1981, had started to support the Nicaraguan Contras. The CIA was the United states government agency that assisted the Contras, arming, feeding and clothing them in accordance with presidential decisions and funds appropriated by Congress. However, the contras failed to win widespread support or military victories despite this support. As much as the United States president continued to favor support of Contras, the majority of the public were opposed to it. Those who did not support Contras feared that the involvement of the United States with the Contras might lead it to a similar situation experienced in Vietnam. Its supporters on the other hand feared that the Soviets would have a dangerous hold in Central America without United states involvement. In 1983, Congress prohibited aid to contra for the purpose of overthrowing the Sandinista government. In 1984, it further limited aid to the Contras. The Congress later cut off all funds to the Contras following a disclosure that the CIA was involved in mining of the Nicaragua harbor without notifying Congress. The president however still felt strongly for the Contras and was therefore focused on keeping them alive . With this regard, he ordered his staff to device a way of keeping the Contras together which led to the NSC becoming operational entity that saw the secret running of the contra assistance effort, and later the Iran initiative. Having been denied funding from by the Congress, the president turned to private sources and third world countries. The president, together with the NSC secretly raised money from other countries to support the Contras. The Flaws Iran-Contra has two illusions at its heart. The first was that Iran would be easy to handle; and the second was that the Nicaraguan contras would save the United States from Communism. Both the illusions were destroyed in ways that showed how fragile the policies were and this occurred within a month of each other. At the beginning of the October 1986, a supply aircraft carrying weapons to the contras was shot down by the Sandinistas. On November 3, a Lebanese weekly magazine carried the story of United States dealings with Iran. With this revelation, it did not appear ordinary that the United States government was involved in either operation. However, the truth of the matter was that the United States was directly involved in both the events. It cannot be denied that the common characteristic of the Iran and Contra policies were deception, secrecy and contempt of the law. There existed a small clique of senior officials who believed that they were the only individuals who knew what was right. They conceived knowledge of their actions by other individuals in the government as a threat to their objectives. The American people, the Congress and the Secretary of State were not enlightened on the actions of these people. The official documents were destroyed when there was a threat to expose their plans. Cabinet officials, elected representatives in congress and the public were told lies. Key facts were also hidden to the president. The United States constitution is particular on the process by which laws and policy are to be made and executed. The essence of the American democracy is the constitutional process, which is also the foundation of its strength. Experience and common sense have shown that flawed process leads to bad results. The departure of Reagans administration from democratic process established the conditions for policy failure which resulted in contradictions that undermined United States credibility. United States went after two contradictory foreign policies simultaneously, a public and a secret one. The public policy was opposed to making any concessions for the release of hostages for fear of such concessions encouraging more hostage taking. At the same time, the United states was secretly trading weapons to secure the release of the hostages. The public policy was meant to ban the shipment of arms to Iran and to exhort other governments to observe this embargo. At the same time, the United States was secretly selling sophisticated missiles to Iran. The public policy was also meant to improve relations with Iraq. The United States was on the other hand shared intelligence on Iraq with Iran secretly. The public policy was also to encourage all governments to punish terrorism and to support the refusal of Kuwait to set free the Dawa prisoners convicted of terrorist acts. Senior officials at the same time secretly endorsed a Second-Hakim plan to allow Iran to secure the release of the prisoners. The letter and spirit of the Boland Amendment that barred military and paramilitary assistance to the contras was to be observed by the public policy. The NSC staff was secretly directed and funded the military efforts of contra. The administration was also meant to consult with the Congressional oversight committee with regard to covert activities in a â€Å"a new spirit of frankness and cooperation† . The CIA and the White House were on the other hand secretly withheld all information about the Iran initiative and contra support network from the committees. Covert operations were to be conducted mainly through the CIA or other organs of the intelligence community authorized by the president. However, even though the NSC was not authorized, its staff secretly became operational and employed private, non-accountable agents to account in covert activities. All these contradictions in policy resulted in policy failure. Iran was armed by the United States, together with its most radical elements. However, the United States neither attained a new relationship with Iran nor reduced the number of American hostages in Lebanon. The sale of the arms did not result in the moderation of Iranian policies. Iran up to the present moment still sponsors actions that are directed against the United States in the Persian Gulf. The United states made itself vulnerable to blackmail by adversaries who were likely to reveal the secret arms sale. The credibility of the United States with allies and friends was undermined by its position of opposing arms sale to Iran while doing the same herself in secret. An illicit funding was sought by the United States for the contras through profits from secret arms sale with the considerable amount ending up in the personal bank accounts of the private individuals who executed the sales. The Iran-Contra Affair also indicates a serious flaw in policymaking process. The highest level of the United States government was marked by confusion and disarray. Under total misapprehension, McFarlane set on a dangerous trip to Tehran . He assumed that the Iranians had promised to secure the release of the American hostages before the delivery of arms while on the contrary, they had only promised to seek the release of the hostages after the arms had arrived. Initially, the president told the Tower Board that he had approved the first Israeli shipments. He then denied then finally said that he did not know whether he had approved the arms shipment as his top advisors were not in agreement on the issue. He also claimed that he did not recall signing a Finding approving the shipment to Iran. However, Poindexters testimony was on the contrary. The American public was incorrectly assured by the president that the NSC staff was adhering to the law and that there was no connection between the government of the United States and the Hasenfus airplane. His staff was on the other hand conducting a covert operation to support the Contras. Another striking feature of the Iran-Contra Affair was that it was marked by pervasive dishonesty and excessive secrecy. The Congress and the American people were constantly and repeatedly told lies about the contra covert action and Iran arms sales. North admitted to altering and destroying official documents. Conclusion Any public official must work on behalf of the state and thus, any action must be directed towards furthering the ideals of the state. As such, the public must be informed of the whatever is going on. Democracy dictates that the representatives of the people must be involved in the decision making process. The nations foreign policy makers act on behalf of the state. Even then, the citizens must be made known the implications and goals of certain actions that are being taken by the state. The Iran-Contra affair, in the contrary, operated against this principle. The affair would have fallen under the broad foreign policy, which was however not the case as it was carried out in secret. As much as policy makers have an interest in maintaining and advancing their domestic political positions, they must also seek to advance the interest of the state internationally. However, the Reagan administration locked policy makers out of the affair which may have led to its failure. The fact is that the administration well knew the consequences of their action and went ahead to carry it out secretly. The administration knew it would lose favor among the citizens if they went ahead and carried out the operations even after Congress was opposed to it. Given the desire for political survival, the administration pretended to be concerned with the domestic impact of the various options that it had. Behind the scenes, it went ahead with its initial plans with no regard for the congress and the public. This in itself was a mockery of democracy.

Role Of Nurse Promoting Health

Role Of Nurse Promoting Health This essay will look at the role of the nurse in promoting health of female adults (25-45) in terms of sexual health and behaviour. It will give definitions of Sexual health and promotion, which will also cover areas such as health models in relation to sexual health and behaviour. It will give an overview of what the role of the sexual health nurse is and throughout the essay relate the nurse and their importance to promoting sexual health. The essay provides government initiatives that are being set in place to highlight the issues surrounding this age group and that show how these affect this specific age group. With this particular client group, which is the female adult, will look at Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) and what control measures and interventions are being put in place to lower the rate in Scotland. The Royal College of Nursing (Royal College of Nursing. 2000) defines sexual health as the physical, emotional, psychological, social and cultural well-being of a persons sexual identity and the capacity and freedom to enjoy and express sexuality without exploitation, oppression, physical or emotional harm. Sexual health is also a term used to associate sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV or AIDS. Whereas an individuals sexuality is shaped by their environment, self-concept, health or disability. This in the role of nursing means that sexual health nurses must take a holistic view of the individual when assessing the clients needs. To focus solely on the sexual behaviour of the individual , ignores the influence of the wider social context we live in. Each society is structured by dominant gender roles, ideologies and power inequalities that appear to prescribe certain expectations and assumptions about what is Normal or Natural sexual expression for men and women (Dallos et al. 1997). In society today with this specific age group there are large differences than that of a generation ago. There are more individuals marrying later and substantially more marriages ending in divorce. This for an older population means more individuals possibly being with more partners than what was deemed as respectable a generation ago and seeking new relationships with different partners after ending marriages. These changes to society bring an increased number of individuals with sexual health issues and a growing number of sexually transmitted diseases. Mace (1974) defines sexual health as being a combination of the somatic, emotional, intellectual and social aspects of sexuality which enhances personality, communication and wellbeing, giving the individual an enriching positive experience. There are three basic elements of sexual health, which are, the capacity to enjoy sexual and reproductive behaviour in accordance with a social and personal ethic. Freedom from fear, shame, guilt, false beliefs and other psychological responses, freedom from impaired sexual relationships and freedom from organic disorders, disease and deficiencies that interfere with sexual and reproductive functions. All individuals consider sexual health and wellbeing differently, this is usually determined by their own sexual experiences and /or by their interactions within the healthcare system. Within the healthcare system there are nurse led sexual health clinics. These clinics are run by specialist nurses in sexual health and are available to any individual seeking advice or guidance in relation to their sexual health needs. These clinics provide patients/clients with one stop specialist sexual health screening, family planning advice, sexual transmitted infection tests which when results are given can also provide prescribed medication that can be given free of charge. They can also use a referral system for counselling and hospital admission. Sexual health is a sensitive area, set in a rapidly changing society and health care system. Providing sexuality and sexual health care can be an intimate process. Scotland has a history of poor sexual health with rising incidents of STIs, which include HIV. The sexual health nurse practitioner must have the skills to give the client the best informed care available. There is an abundance of research studies available to the sexual health nurse in improving their knowledge and the latest changes to policy and procedures within the NHS healthcare system. Taking a holistic view approach to the individual sexual wellbeing but at the same time recognising the individuals diversity of moral, cultural and ethical view of their sexual health. The skills involved in this area are, being able to identify the needs and priorities of the individual. Being able to set aims and objectives that are acceptable and which are seen as a reachable target by the individual. The sexual health nurse must always include the client in all decision making, consulting and negotiation of the client needs and care. This cannot be obtained unless the practitioner has up to date knowledge of policies and available resources within the clients graphical area. Being ab le to plan, act and evaluate the care and treatment of the individual, is vital in the aim of empowering the individual to gain control of their sexual health. But of the most vital skills required, is a skill that is used across all areas of nursing, which is communication, without this the client will not feel trust and care, thus will not improve their health. There are staff training and development programmes in all services that address sexual health issues as appropriate to the needs of the client group. This includes services for which sexual health is not a main priority. Staff should be expected to be knowledgeable, supportive and non-judgmental in their approach to clients. Using evidence-based knowledge which is available through a varied means of learning, gives the sexual health nurse up to date insights on changes and recommendations of daily practices within the sexual health area of healthcare. With Scotland having the highest rate of unwanted pregnancies in Europe. Many sexual health statistics show the higher amounts of recorded STIs are in areas of the poorest population. Sexual health services in Scotland treat large numbers of young female adults with low cost interventions, but this has proved to be poorly developed due to under-investment, lack of strategic leadership and low prioritisation. These factors have resulted in a variance in accessibility and quality of services available to this clientele. With sexual health being a personal and sensitive area of health. There is still a stigma attached to the use of these services, that can result in the lack of public involvement and proves difficult to obtain a public voice. Scotland issued a national sexual health and relationship strategy. This was published as the Respect and Responsibility: strategy and action plan for improving sexual health in Scotland. This strategy was launched in January 2005, with the aim to enhance sexual health promotion, education and services provisions, which is now in its second phase (2008-2011). This is to address the wider societal issues related to sexual health with shifting cultural and behavioural change. The strategy has nine standards, that set out the initiative. The developments of the second stage includes a publication of an HIV Action Plan, that has prevention as its main core and commitment in providing treatment and care for all those who need it. All sexual health services performance will be monitored in each of the NHS Boards areas by the NHS Quality Improvement Scotland (NHS QIS). The government standards are not a set of rules but a guidelines for all NHS Boards to develop and improve sexual health services. The standards are set out as follows: Standard One A comprehensive range of specialist sexual health services is provided locally and that individuals with the greater need are treated as a priority. This means that each NHS board must provide a full range of sexual health services that will identify the needs of the local population and to prevent inequality within the area. These services must ensure a high quality of care within these services to reduce individual morbidity and maintain public health. Standard Two The public has access to accurate and consistent information about sexual health relevant to the clients needs. Access to accurate and unbiased information, this can only assist if the client attends the service facility or if information is made available within all doctors waiting rooms. Standard Three NHS boards ensure the development and delivery of integrated approaches to sexual health improvement, particularly in relation to young people. This standard is in relation to the role of the parent or carer and the positive influence that they assume there is between parent and child, but this is not always the case in most families and certainly not in the case of young adults over the age of twenty-five. Standard Four Individuals who are diagnosed with a STI, see an appropriately trained member of staff to organise partner notification (contact tracing). This would be an ideal strategy in the prevention of increased rates of STIs but we do not live in a society that is so open and understanding with each other. Standard Five Individuals attending for ongoing HIV care are offered high quality sexual and reproductive healthcare to improve personal wellbeing and to minimise the risk of transmitting infection to others. This will raise the quality of sexual and reproductive healthcare provided for this clientele. Standard Six Women receive safe termination of pregnancy with minimal delay, followed by contraceptive advice and psychological support. The Sexual health nurses role in this situation is to provide information on all contraceptive interventions and arrange for counselling if the client needs it. Standard Seven Men who have sex with men who are at risk of sexually transmitted hepatitis B are offered vaccination. Statistics show that homosexual men are 54% more likely to seek sexual health advice than a heterosexual male. Standard Eight All individuals have access to intrauterine and implantable contraception. These are more effective and the individual is not required to have continuous routine follow-ups until the expiry of the contraception. This can reduce the rate of unwanted pregnancies but eludes the need for education of the individuals sexual behaviour. Standard Nine All staff who deliver sexual health are adequately and appropriately trained. Sexual Health care like any other area of healthcare requires a high standard of competency, with a non-judgemental and sensitive approach towards the individual. The staff must also be aware of legal and local policies to protect the individual and their care. Sexual health is not just about clinical services. These services must make a contribution to the vast effort of promoting sexual health rather than just that of sexual behaviour. This may result in, these services only being beneficial to this client group, if they attend. But for those that are not fully aware of these confidential services, the only other means of finding out about these services is through the power of literature provided within doctors surgery waiting rooms or through advice and instruction from relationships with peers and family. This has a follow on effect to the quality and amount of sexual health and relationship education reaching Scotlands young female adults. Sexual health services such as Specialist Family Planning Clinics, Genito-Urinary Clinics, GPs, Chemists and Nurse Practitioners can provide sexual health services that the individual can use to access advice, information, contraception such as condoms, morning after pill to longer lasting contraception such as implant (Implanon), Contraception Injection or the IUD (Coil). These are measures to stop unwanted pregnancies but these services also provide screening for STIs with follow up assistance and guidance. Within these services, the sexual health nurse will provide the instruments for avoiding STIs, unwanted pregnancies and all screening and testing but they must also provide the individual with holistic health education. An individuals emotional, social and spiritual aspects of their health are just as important as the physical aspects. People learn best when they feel secure, the relevant and appropriate needs are met, they are actively involved and know and understand what has to be done to reach their goals set but most importantly they are respected as individuals in their own right. (Daines et al 1992) For the sexual health nurse, there are several models of nursing that can be used with the nursing practice of sexual health and behaviour. Beatties Model of health promotion offers a structural analysis of Health Promotion. Beattie suggests that there are four strategies of health promotion which are 1. Health persuasion. This is aimed at the individuals and is co-ordinated by the sexual health nurse and other members of the multidisciplinary team, to be persuaded and encouraged the individual to change to a healthier lifestyle. The sexual health nurses role is to be the expert or prescriber. Activities include advice and information. 2.Legislative action. This strategy protects the population by making healthier choices available. The sexual health nurse is the role of Custodian knowing what will aid the improvement of the individuals health. Activities could include policy work and lobbying. 3.Personal Counselling. The Sexual health nurse use their skills to empower the individual to have the confidence to take more control of their health. This intervention is client led with a focus on personal development. 4.Community Development. This strategy is similar to personal counselling, with the aim of seeking to empower or enhance the skills of the community with their sexual health with further education. Beatties model is a useful tool for the sexual health nurse because it can identify a clear framework for deciding a strategy but remind them that the choice of interventions can be influence by social and political aspects. (Beattie, 1991) Tannahills model of health promotion is extensively accepted by health care workers. Tannahills model takes a holistic view, showing that all three spheres of activities are entwined. The three spheres of Tannahills model are Health education, which emphasises on communication to enhance well-being and prevention of ill health through knowledge and attitudes. Prevention, by reducing or avoiding risk of disease or ill health through medical interventions. Health Protection, using legislative, fiscal or social measures in the bid to safeguard the populations health. This model suggests that all aspects are interrelated but they also reflect distinctive ways of looking at health issues and is descriptive of what goes on in practice but does not show why the sexual health nurse may chose one approach over another. (Downie et al 1996) There is also the Empowerment model by Tones, which its main principle is to enable individuals take and gain control over their own sexual health. Healthy Public policy + Health Education = Health Promotion, health promotion involves improving a populations health through improvement of their lifestyle (or behaviour), environment, and health policy. It prioritises empowerment as the core value and strategy underpinning and defining the practice of health promotion. The support of the individuals is also vital for implementing change. Tones model of empowerment enhances individual autonomy and enables individuals, groups and communities to take control of their sexual health. (Tones Tilford 2001) All the above models aid the sexual health nurse to think through the aims, implications of different strategies and their own role as the practitioner with a successful outcome. Health promotion has a full range of modifiable determinants of health which are not just concerned with only individual behaviours and lifestyles but other societal factors such as income, social status, education, employment, work conditions and also factors such as access to health services and their physical environment. These effect everyone throughout their lives and health. This is a ongoing challenge within health promotion for sexual health nurses. Using data collected from GUM clinic setting, between 2004-2008, it was observed that diagnosis of STIs, as an example Gonorrhoea infection had raised 77% within young adult females group. Even though this seems to be a large percentage of reported cases, Scotland is ranked ninth (for Gonorrhoea infection) in comparison to thirteen areas of the United Kingdom. Within Scotland, the Scottish Government are diligent in obtaining the national statistics in regards to sexual health as this give them a clearer insight on how to update and promote better health services available to the population. Scotlands statistics for STIs with young adult females (25-45). In the past five years (2004-2008) of data collection, there has been on average 3,388 reported cases and this covers eleven NHS Boards covering Scotland. Although data show that STIs, unintended pregnancy and abortion are more prevalent in those aged less than 25, these issues also affect older age groups. In 2008, individuals aged 25-44 comprised 40% of the workload in GUM clinics. While one third of all acute STI diagnoses made in the GUM clinic setting are attributed to this age group, over half of acute STIs among those aged over 25 are being diagnosed in the 25-29 year age group. (ISD 2009) There are many people in Scotland that experience positive sexual relationships and good sexual health but looking at the statistics, they show that there is a growing concern within the promotion of sexual health. The media has an impact on society and their choices. Sexual imagery is used in todays society as a tool to entice the consumer to spend money. It uses sex and relationships to emphasise stereotypes about different beliefs in activities and behaviours, usually in a way that ignores the risks associated with sexual behaviours, and has contributed to the casual attitudes to sexual issues are risk free and acceptable. But, the media can be a powerful tool in regards to getting the important messages of sexual health out to the public and can also be an incentive tool in recruiting individuals to help with government campaigns to change the attitudes of the younger generations view of sexual health. In conclusion, the sexual health nurse is a varied role in society, with the ongoing challenge of assisting the younger female adult obtain a good sexual health attitude and showing them how to promote good sexual health as peers. The government is working hard to raise Scotlands standards of sexual health for the individual and communities, which can aid the struggle of reducing the numbers of STIs reported across Scotland. All individuals have their own views of sexual health and healthcare services are there to give them more information, support and guidance on their sexual health needs. This, if nurtured can reduce statistics and for the next generation of Scotland be sexually healthier. Scotlands sexual health issues cannot be remedy overnight but with continuous improvement and availability of sexual health nurses and services, Scotland can look forward to a positive sexually healthier Scotland.

Liquidity Gap Analysis And Schedule Finance Essay

Liquidity Gap Analysis And Schedule Finance Essay The main technique used to measure liquidity position is liquidity gap analysis. Liquidity gaps are differences between assets and liabilities at present time and in the future (Thomas Barnes 15 Jan 2010). Gaps generate liquidity risk; deficits will require funding and excess will result in interest rate risk. Gaps can either be static or dynamic. Static gaps will consider all assets and liabilities which are actually present in the balance sheet. In such case the analysis shows a reduction of the assets and liabilities as they mature. Dynamic gaps are simply the consideration of actual plus projected inflows and outflows; these depend on business uncertainties (Hampel et al 1999). A liquidity gap schedule provides an analytical framework for measuring future funding needs by comparing the amount of assets and liabilities maturing over specific time intervals (Thomas Barnes 15 Jan 2010). Table 3 presents a sample liquidity gap schedule. Table 3: Liquidity gap schedule Less than 10 days Over 10 days but less than 3 months Over 3 months but less 6 months Over 6 months less than one year 1 to 5 years Over 5 years and capital Total Assets 10 10 10 5 65 0 100 Liabilities and Equity 50 30 15 0 0 5 100 Net outflow(Assets minus Liabilities) (40) (20) (5) 5 65 (5) 0 Cumulative net outflow (40) (60) (65) (60) 5 0 0 Source: Office of Thrift Supervision Jan 15 (2010) Sec 530 page 29 In the liquidity gap schedule, the company ranges assets and liabilities into different time intervals taking into account their remaining time to maturity. Generally, the company ranges assets and liabilities according to their effective maturities rather than their contractual maturities. For instance, a company will treat non maturity deposits as long-term liabilities rather than short-term liabilities. Negative gapping at the shorter end of the schedule increases the risk that the company will be unable to rollover maturing liabilities as they come due. While such a position is in favour to liquidity, it tends to enhance profitability over the long-term, provided the company keeps the gaps within manageable limit. However, a limitation of the liquidity gap schedule is that it does not capture projected balance sheet changes such as future loan and deposit growth. While it is important to understand the liquidity of a companys existing balance sheet, it is also essential to forecast the growth of key balance sheet components, such as deposits and loans, over time. (Thomas Barnes 15 Jan 2010) 2.8.3 Risk Management Liquidity risk management should be vigorous with analysis and metrics that reflects a companys liquidity position and assess its options under different market conditions, such as economic stress, crisis, and collapse (Thomas Barnes 15 Jan 2010). Liquidity risk needs to be managed once it has been identified and measured. Risk is more integral to business for insurance that it is perhaps for any other industry (Capgemini 2006). Long-run profitability will suffer when companies hold too much low-earning liquidity assets. Holding too little liquidity can lead to severe financial problems. Managing liquidity risk is not only to eliminate the risk but rather find the equilibrium between return and risk (Decker, A, P 2000). Selling some assets rapidly seems to be an easy solution, but still insurers will have to face forced sales risk. For some insurers, their projects to improve risk management evolved into the establishment or expansion of their risk management department (Henry Essert march 2010). The aim in managing liquidity is to minimize cost. The cheapest approach is to try to restructure the balance sheet in such a way to reduce gap and that the appropriate level of risk is reached (Decker, A, P 2000). 2.8.3.1 Metrics used for liquidity risk management Most financial firms such as insurance companies use various metrics to control their liquidity risk. This consists of three basic approaches which can be categorized as: the liquid assets approach, the cash flow approach, and a combination of both. (Sharma paul et al 2006) Under the liquid assets approach, the company needs to maintain liquid instruments on their balance sheet which can be consulted whenever required. (Ratios are the relevant metrics in this approach) Under the cash flow matching approach, the company tries to match cash outflows against contractual cash inflows across a range of near-term maturity buckets. This approach is mostly used by insurance companies. The mixed approach is a combination of both cash flow approach and the liquid assets approach. The company attempts to match cash outflows each time bucket against a combination of contractual cash inflows. Insurance companies place more emphasis on the cash flow matching approach. When gaps in maturity buckets are unfavorable, insurance companies would utilize the mixed approach to help ensure that they will be able to meet their obligations to provide cash to counterparties. (Sharma et al 2006) 2.8.3.2 Assets Liability Management Assets Liability Management (ALM) can be termed as a risk management technique designed to earn an adequate return while maintaining a reasonable surplus of assets beyond liabilities. It considers interest rates, earning power and degree of willingness to take on debt and hence is also known as Surplus Management (Sayonton Roy 2010). Management of liquidity consists of raising fund and invests where excess of fund is available. The managers will buy, hold and sell assets and liabilities in order to maintain a predetermined level of liquidity (Matti Peltonen 2010). This technique forms part of the Asset liability Management and thus facilitates in Funding, Investing and Hedging issues to achieve predetermined strike between risk and return. The objective is to increase profitability, while monitoring risk, as well as complying with the constraints of companies (Arzu Tektas et al 2005). 2. 9 Study in the same field 2.9.1 Estimation of Liquidity Risk Patrick Tobin and Alan Brown 2003 designed a method to model liquidity using a bottom-up approach. They calculated average size of withdrawals as, Yt=ZtNt Where, Zt is the total withdrawals for time t Nt is the number of withdrawals for time t A period of 35 weeks was considered The average values were, N=t=1TNt, Y=t=1TYt, Z=t=1TZt Then they rescaled data as follows, Mt=NtN , Ct=YtY , Bt=ZtZ Where, Mt is the mob, Ct is the clip, Bt is the bag The basic model was found and applied to product p BLt=p=1KWpBpt, Where, BLt= Business Line at time t Bpt= Bag for each product p at time t Wp= Weight for product p This gives rise to a weekly factor. The dispersion of this weekly factor was the subject of further analysis. This model tries to estimate the weekly cash outflow. 2.9.2 Measuring liquidity risk in Insurance companies In an article namely Measuring Liquidity risk in Banking Management Framework Giampaolo Gabbi (2000, p.44-58) proposed a model to implement liquidity risk within the risk management mostly used, the Value at Risk (VaR). This model also applies for the Insurance sectors since they have similar operations such as fixed deposits, loan facilities and other banking activities. Value at Risk is the largest likely lost from market risk that an asset or portfolio will suffer over a time interval and with a degree of certainty selected by the decision maker Titus Lewis, 1997. In a general circumstance five factors are considered before calculating VaR, this are: volatility of prices, interest and exchange rates probability distribution of likely return time horizon confidence interval correlation among different positions Once these elements are known, risk manager can calculate VaR in the worst case scenario for the single position (pos) VaR pos= pos.n. Ã‚ ³Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  t where,  Ã‚ ³Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  t is volatility for frequency t n is the scaling factor needed to obtain the desired confidence level under the assumption of a normal distribution of market returns Modeling liquidity in a VaR framework is given by: VaR= n { Ã‚ ³Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨ L)  Ã‚ 1â‚ ¬Ã‚ ¯2 + Æ’( Ã‚ ­  Ã‚ ³Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ²Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ©Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Ã†â€™.  Ã‚ ³Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨ Lâ‚ ¬Ã‚ ©Ã‚ Ã‚  +  Ã‚ ³Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬ º log c â‚ ¬Ã‚ ¨Lâ‚ ¬Ã‚ ©Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ Ã‚ ½ Where n depends on the underlying distribution,  Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨ L)  Ã‚  is the expected execution log in selling the L shares,  Ã‚ ­ is the mean quality discount,  Ã‚ ³Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  is the volatility of the discount and c â‚ ¬Ã‚ ¨Lâ‚ ¬Ã‚ © is the quantity discount Unfortunately all these information are difficult to access or calculate, so indicators were used to simplify the equation, leading to the following outcome COL = 12  Ã¢â‚¬ º Pt â‚ ¬Ã‚ ¨S +  Ã‚ ¡Ã‚ Ã‚ ³Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  spreadâ‚ ¬Ã‚ ©Ã‚ Ã‚  Where COL is the cost of liquidity, Pt is todays mid price for the assets or instrument, S is the average relative defined as  Ã¢â‚¬ ºbid ask Ã‚ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¯ mid price,  Ã‚ ¡ is the scaling factor and  Ã‚ ³Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  spread is the volatility of relative spread. 2.10 Overview of liquidity Risk Management in Mauritius 2.10.1 Liquidity in the Insurance Act 2005 Insurance Companies in Mauritius are governed by the Insurance act 2005 which is regulated by the Financial Services Commission (FSC). The FSC has the responsibility to ensure that Insurance companies are taking appropriate measures to manage all the risks to protect the interest of the clients and the public at large. The consequences of liquidity risk on a countrys financial system make its management become a very important issue. Section 23 of the Insurance Act 2005 considers liquidity and solvency issues. It also lists the different assets which are to be considered as liquid assets, for example; cash balances, fixed interest, equities. According to Section 24 (1)(a) of the insurance act an insurer shall in respect of its insurance business at all times have and maintain its level of liquidity as may be prescribed. It imposes Insurance to maintain an adequate and appropriate form of liquidity. At any time the Financial services Commission may order an Insurer to increase its level of liquidity, depending on risks in the Insurance operation, maturing liabilities, quality of assets and other financial resources. Failure to comply with the above will result in that Insurance not been permitted to assume any new risks of any kind, or underwrite or renew any insurance policy; unless it increases its level of liquidity to the indicated amount. 2.10.2 Guideline on Liquidity The Financial Services Commission has issued a Guideline on Liquidity in February 2008. This Guide is issued under section7 (1) (a) of the Financial Services Act 2007 and Section 130 of the Insurance Act 2005. The Guideline on Liquidity gives an exact indication of what the Financial Services Commission is expecting from the Insurers in their management of liquidity. In order to help insurance companies to foster professional standards the Commission expects all insurers to have regard to these Guidelines. These guidelines also require insurers to provide reports on its liquidity position every three months for the first year and at the end of each year afterwards. Guideline on liquidity also concerns contingency planning. A good contingency plan should be realistic, unambiguous, designed to be flexible and should indicate the responsibility and priority of the Insurance and their management team. This will enable an insurance company to withstand a liquidity crisis. Stress test is another aspect of the Guidelines on liquidity. The stress test requirement is the minimum amount of assets that an insurer should hold in excess of its liabilities. The stress test requirement is important in managing liquidity risk. Special attention should be given to assets, liabilities and off balance sheet, consider maturity of policies and their future prospects. The guideline is not intended to be prescriptive on how insurance should measure and control its funding requirement, but however, certain approaches in the theoretical review are recommended. Finally an Insurance company should manage access to fund and consider its diversification. Concentrating in few types of assets, liabilities or market may be risky. Therefore, internal limits on maximum fund engage in one type of activity should be set. The guideline also encourage Insurance to look for new arrangement and developing financial assets and market to have access to fund while reducing liquidity risk. 2.10.3 Solvency II consideration of liquidity Since the introduction of the Solvency I in the early 1970s, there has been continuous development of sophisticated risk management systems leading to its replacement by Solvency II. Solvency II has introduced a wide framework for risk management which helps in implementing procedures to identify, measure, and manage levels of risk. It is the most recent set of regulatory requirements for insurance companies and is scheduled to start on 1 January 2013. New funding sources and liquidity management techniques have been brought forward by financial and technological advances. Therefore, Insurance companies are expected to understand the liquidity levels and the behavior of cash flows in different circumstances and thus enabling them to react accordingly. Solvency II identifies the principles for a proper liquidity management. Those principles fall under the following main headings; reducing the risk that an insurer cannot meet its claims; To reduce the losses encountered by policyholders ; To enable supervisors to act spontaneously if capital goes below the level required; Increase confidence in the financial stability of insurance sector. The Solvency II framework has three major parts for the insurance sector: Quantitative requirements. Governance and risk management requirements. Disclosure and transparency requirements The Guideline on Liquidity issued by the Financial Services Commission reflects mostly the following principles; to develop a structure for the management of liquidity, to measure and monitor net funding requirements, to manage market access, contingency planning, and internal controls for liquidity risk management in improving Liquidity.

The Triumph of Les Misérables Essay -- Les Misérables Miserables Essay

The Triumph of Les Misà ©rables    Les Misà ©rables (1862), a novel set in early nineteenth century France, presents a story of obsessions in honor, love, and duty, and through it redemption and salvation. It is the story of the poor Jean Valjean, condemned to an unfair amount of time in prison and a life on the run for stealing a loaf of bread for his starving family. The kind act of forgiveness from a Bishop with whom Jean Valjean stays one night, changes the course in which he chooses to live his life. Under a different identity, he becomes wealthy from a business he starts and later is elected mayor of the small town of Montreuil. He falls madly in love with Fantine, one of the workers in his factory. Because Fantine, one of the very poorest and most pitiful residents of Montreuil, has a child born out of wedlock, Jean Valjean as the respected mayor must keep his love for her a secret. When Fantine dies unexpectedly, Jean Valjean vows he will raise her daughter Cosette, and shield her from all the evils in the wo rld. Through all of this, Jean Valjean is being pursued by Javert, a policeman whose entire life has been dedicated to finding Jean Valjean. While running from Javert, Jean Valjean and Cosette find themselves in Paris in the middle of the 1832 Revolution. As Cosette matures, she falls in love with Marius, a young revolutionist. Despite the objections of Jean Valjean, Cosette continues to secretly visit Marius at night. During the revolution, Marius is injured badly and Jean Valjean, after finding a love note from Marius to Cosette, quickly comes to the rescue of the wounded gentleman. Eventually Jean Valjean and Marius' Grandfather consent to the wedding of Cosette and Marius. In this novel, "there is a point at which... ...'s anguishes with obsession, help him to more effectively relate his novel, Les Misà ©rables, to the reader. In the book's ending, Jean Valjean dies knowing he is happy, content and prepared for his death. His adoration for Cosette has left her loving him and satisfied with the life he has helped her create. Before Jean Valjean dies, he says to Cosette and Marius, "I die happy. Let me put my hands upon you dear beloved heads" (399). Like Jean Valjean, Javert's obsessions rule his life, but with negative intentions rather than positive ones. Once Javert realizes his obsessions are nothing but empty promises, he too is empty and chooses to end his life. Three of the main characters of the story, find that their perseverance and obsession to have the life they wish for ends triumphantly. Bibliography Hugo, Victor. Les Misà ©rables. New York: Fawcett Premier. 1997.

A Feminist Reading of Their Eyes Were Watching God Essay -- Feminism F

A Feminist Reading of Their Eyes Were Watching God  Ã‚     Ã‚   In Zora Neale Hurston’s novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God, the reader is treated to an enthralling story of a woman’s lifelong quest for happiness and love.   Although this novel may be analyzed according to several critical lenses, I believe the perspectives afforded by French feminists Helene Cixous and Luce Irigaray have been most useful in informing my interpretation of Hurston’s book.   In â€Å"The Laugh of the Medusa,† Cixous discusses a phenomenon she calls antilove that I have found helpful in defining the social hierarchy of women and relationships between them in the novel.   In addition, Cixous addresses the idea of woman as caregiver, which can be illustrated through the character of Janie in Their Eyes Were Watching God.   On the other hand, Luce Irigaray discusses the different modes of sexual desire of men and women in her essay, â€Å"The Sex Which is Not One.†Ã‚   Many examples supporting and refuting her claims can be found in the novel. According to Cixous, the most heinous crime committed by men against women is the promotion of antilove.   â€Å"Insidiously, violently, they have led [women] to hate women, to be their own enemies, to mobilize their immense strength against themselves, to be the executants of their virile needs† (1455).   Their Eyes Were Watching God offers many examples of women in vicious contention with one another, usually involving or benefiting a man.   Janie is confronted by the malice of her female neighbors in the very first chapter of the novel, as she arrives back in Eatonville after her adventure with Tea Cake.   â€Å"The women took the faded shirt and muddy overalls and laid them away for remembrance.   It was a weapon against her strength and if i... ... 1930's can also be applied today, within the context of my own personal life and that of the surrounding society.   The challenges Janie struggles with as she moves through her life are the same struggles every woman, no matter where or when she lives, have had to face.   In my opinion, it is this universality that renders Their Eyes Were Watching God and its companion criticisms so valuable for readers.    Works Cited Cixous, Hà ©là ¨ne.   â€Å"The Laugh of the Medusa.†Ã‚   The Critical Tradition: Classic Texts and Contemporary Trends.   Ed. David H. Richter.   Boston: Bedford Books, 1998. 1454-1466. Hurston, Zora Neale.   Their Eyes Were Watching God.   New York: HarperPerennial, 1998.   Irigaray, Luce.   â€Å"That Sex Which is Not One.†Ã‚   The Critical Tradition: Classic Texts and Contemporary Trends.   Ed. David H. Richter.   Boston: Bedford Books, 1998. 1467-1471.   

Relationships and Attraction

From the beginning on time, being around others makes us feel affiliated. It is human nature to form relationships with people who attract us. As human beings, there has always been a desire to form relationships. The lack of relationships and bonds with other individuals can lead to negative feelings, such as loneliness. In order to figure out the need to form bonds we must analyze the benefits and factors of attraction and relationships. There are six factors that describe attraction. The mere exposure happens when we are around someone or something so much, we grow fond of it. For example, you go to training classes for your new positions for the next 4 weeks. When you are hired you are more likely to hang around the people who sat closest to you during your weeks of training. We are more attracted to individuals who are attractive. In a study that evaluated attraction bias and the effect it had on hiring managers, 112 managers were given four potential candidates resume and pictures to go over. The managers chose candidates who were more attractive (Marlowe, Schneider,& Nelson, 1996). We are attracted to individuals that we can relate to. For example, advocates for PETA and a person who works on a slaughter farm are less likely to be associated with each other. Along with being attracted to those we relate to, we are also attracted to individuals we look like. For example, in a room full of Hispanics and Blacks, Hispanics are more likely to mingle with Hispanics; the same with black individuals. We are less likely to befriend someone of another culture because of the factor, we are more attracted to individuals we look like. Feenstra also suggest we like individuals who are had to get because â€Å"they are selective in their social choices† (Feenstra, 2011, Ch. 3. 1, â€Å"We like Those Who Are Hard to Get†). If we can form a bond with this individual, it can possibly boost our self esteem because of the exclusivity of the relationship. Humans are more likely to be attracted to individuals they can benefit from. This involves equity. Equity in relationships is receiving back from your partner what you p ut in. A relationship can be under-benefited or over-benefited. Under-benefited relationships involve someone giving more than receiving; and an over-benefited relationship involves receiving more from your partner than giving (Feenstra,2011). Bonds and relationships are natural instincts we as humans want to have. We have an innate need to belong. The need for frequent positive contact and the need for enduring connections marked by mutual concern for the welfare of the other are two parts of the need to belong theory (Feenstra, 2011). Our social bond, emotions, and fear of deprivation are all connected to our need to belong. Positive emotions stem from relationships we have with others. Not being able to form relationships and bonds with others may lead to negative emotions. Social bonds are formed quickly and easily (Feenstra, 2011). For example, you go to a job interview and before the interview you are waiting with a group of people also waiting to get interviewed. You are more likely to end up talking to someone who is sitting next to you. We need contact and attention from others so that we do not feel deprived. Mental illnesses and depression stem from deprivation. Love is a word that is often spoken, and has many different definitions. For example, I love the Atlanta Falcons versus I am in love with Johnny Depp. There are three types of love. Being in love suggest having a desire for someone. There are three types of love, they include: companionate love, compassionate love, and passionate love. Companionate love involves intimacy and commitment. This love can be described as a love you may have for friends and family members. . Trust and past shared experiences contribute to companionate love. Passionate love describes the â€Å"in love† kind of love and involves desire, emotional arousal, and physical attraction (Feenstra, 2011). For example, a man decides to ask his girlfriend to marry him because he is in love with her. Compassionate love describes the love you may feel for your mother. This love is broken into two parts: communal relationships and exchange relationships. In communal relationships things are done for an individual without expecting something in return. In exchange relationships things are done based on whether or not something will be given in exchange. Communal relationships are ones we more likely will have with our friends and family members. For example, if your child is sick you will take care of him or her regardless if they will give you anything back in return. Communal relationships deal with people who aren’t apart of your close friends and family social circle. In Figure 14. 1, Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love distinguishes romantic love from empty love. Sternberg’s theory describes romantic love as passionate and having intimacy . Empty love is described as having only commitment (Feenstra, 2011). Along with these two theories, Sternberg also lists other different components of love. Intimacy, passion, and commitment are all components that make up the kinds of love listed in the table. Intimacy is the closeness you may have with an individual. Its about opening up emotionally and trust. Passion is the emotional desire you have for you partner. Commitments are the decisions we make within relationships. For example, a decision to move to another state along with your partner after they accept a job offers shows your level of commitment to the relationship. We stay healthy by forming bonds with others. When we are deprived we risk depression and other mental illnesses that can have lasting effects on ourselves and others around us. The benefits of relationships show us why we form bonds with other individuals.

Introduction to Psychological Testing

Introduction to Psychological Testing Psy 475 October 22, 2012 Introduction to Psychological Testing The history of personality and intelligence testing, dates to the beginning World War II. In psychology, clinicians use psychological tests as a tool to help aid in identifying important information in regard to the behaviors of an individual or a group. There is a major difference between regular testing and testing used for psychological purposes. There are various tests that can be administered to determine specific abilities or identify the characteristics of an individual.This paper will define the term â€Å"test†, describe the major categories of tests, and identify the major uses and users of these tests. Also this paper will also discuss the comparison and contrast the concepts of reliability and validity and explain how they affect psychological testing. Test According to Hogan, a test is a standardized process used to provide information about specific behaviors or c ognitive process through standardized procedures. Psychological tests are a battery of tests that evaluate and measure functions of emotions and behaviors in human beings.The test batteries are composed of interviews, and assessments that focus on specific areas such as learning, memory, attention, and academic capabilities. Tests can be conducted in various ways such as verbal, visual, oral, and written assessments or evaluation. Information gathered from standardized tests are useful and effective because they categorize specific behaviors with scores and provide results, which are reliable and valid. Psychological testing can be performed by licensed professionals; such as clinical psychologists, counseling, and school psychologist.Major categories of tests, Uses and Users Psychological tests provide a platform for providing information and insight, which helps to gain a better understanding of human behaviors. There different types of tests are used to measure various contexts o f specific areas of behavior. According to Chadha, Psychological tests are grouped into several categories, which include personality, mental ability, attitude, achievement, and neuropsychological tests. These test can be administered to an individual alone or to a group of people.According to Hogan intelligence test focuses on various functions of the individual who measures potential and basic ability, such as memory, cognitive functions, thinking skill, and visualization. Two of the most popular intelligence test are the Stanford-Binet and the Wechsler Intelligence Tests. Achievement and aptitude tests are commonly used in educational or employment settings. Educators and employers use these tests to identify how much an individual knows about a certain topic, such as academic subject or employment position.Educators use achievement tests to identify and compare abilities of students, while employers use these tests to identify talents, interests, and special skills (2008). Accor ding to Hogan, personality tests are commonly used in research and forensic settings to assist with providing a clinical diagnosis by measuring personality styles. Personality test is set up in two, formats. The first consists of yes or no questions and the second questions are true or false.According to Hogan, interests and attitudes are mainly used for high school and college students to identify interests related to job fields. The most common test used to measure and identify vocational interests is the Strong Interest Inventory (SII) or the Kuder Career Search (Hogan, 2007). The last category of testing is the neuropsychological tests. These types of test focus cognitive abilities as related to brain functions such as thinking, reasoning, memory and motor coordination.According to Hogan, uses and users of psychological tests include clinical, educational, personnel, and research settings. Clinical settings such as counseling and psychology use testing to identify the nature or severity of a specific problem or a behavior. The testing results are used to develop treatment plans used to carry out interventions for therapeutic application. According to Hogan, educators use assessment as a tool for assessing levels of student learning and abilities in efforts to help the student improve.Another major user of psychological testing are businesses. Personnel and employment testing according to Hogan, was developed to identify and select the best candidates for employment positions. Employers also use testing to conduct performance and promotion evaluations. The last use of testing involves research. According to Hogan researchers use testing as a viable part of research studies because they are replicable and provide reliable information that useful and valid.Compare and Contrast Reliability and Validity Test reliability and validity are very important concept of testing. These tools used to measure the data that has been collected for the test to determine if t he results are sustainable and effective. According to Hogan reliability is meant to be consistent and dependable. A reliable test provides the same scores continuously for an individual. Test reliability relies on specific criteria to determine the quality and accuracy of psychological measurements (Chadha, 2009).To determine reliability there are five methods that can be used to estimate test scores. These methods identify the proportion of the score, which may include error variances. Although these methods are used to determine reliability and identify errors there various factors, which can affect the results of the reliability of a test. Test validity is an important aspect of test evaluations. The validity of the tests focuses on specific criteria used to ensure that testing concept meets requirements and professional standards of scientific research methods.There are two common methods used to test validity, the first is criterion validity and content validity. According to Chadha, content validity focuses on the selection of items for ability and achievement test; judgments are used to identify the usefulness or application of the test. Criterion validity according to Chadha, focuses on the ability of test score used to observe behaviors or other information gathered from the test. Reliability and validity test the same aspects of a test but in a different manner.Reliability is more focused on the stability of a test score and validity evaluates this information based on specific criteria (Chadha, 2009). Conclusion In conclusion psychological testing is used to provide, identify, and measure characteristics, abilities and the behaviors of an individual or a group. There various types of testing be used in several contexts, which provide valuable information to the test examine. Several fields or professions rely on testing to provide information that can be used for purposes of assessments, treatment, learning, and identifying needs. Reliability and a lidity methods are used to ensure that the information received from testing is effective and properly used for the purpose intended. References Chadha, N. K. (2009). Introduction to psychological testing. In Applied psychometry. (pp. 71-87). New Delhi: SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd. doi: 10. 4135/9788132108221. n5 Hogan, T. P. (2007). Psychological testing: A practical introduction (2nd ed. ). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. psychological test. (2008). In The Columbia Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www. credoreference. com. ezproxy. apollolibrary. com/entry/columency/psychological_test